Buddhism

Buddhism Today

All of these acts of offering are intimately involved in the concept of merit making. By performing them, individuals, through the working of karma, can seek to assure themselves rebirth in one of the heavens or a better station in life, from which they may be able to attain the goal of enlightenment.

During this century, traditional Buddhist practices have been increasingly challenged by the advances of secularization and Westernization in Asia. In view of this, various modern Buddhist leaders have tended to deemphasize the popular Buddhist practices and expressions of faith and to stress the more rational and empirical aspects of Buddhist thought as well as the practice of meditation. At the same time, they have given to Buddhism a considerable role in the nationalist movements in their own countries and promoted contacts with other Buddhist nations through such ecumenical organizations as the World Fellowship of Buddhists, which now has chapters throughout the world.

In more recent years, however, some of the Buddhist leaders have lost their influence, and some of their nations have lost their Buddhism. Vietnam, Laos, and Kampuchea (Cambodia) have joined China, Mongolia, Tibet, and North Korea as once Buddhistic but now Communist nations. Even as Western ideology (whether in the form of communism or secular capitalism) has advanced into Asia, however, Buddhism has begun to spread in the West. Tibetan, Theravada, and Japanese sects especially have firm toeholds in America and Western Europe, and, in the face of further uncertainties in Asia, a few Buddhist leaders have even come to think that the future of their religion lies there.

Joseph M Kitagawa and John S Strong

Bibliography:
H Bechert and R Gombrich, eds., The World of Buddhism (1984); K K K S Ch'en, Buddhism in China (1964); E Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development (1959); P Denwood and A Piatiagrosky, eds., Buddhist Studies (1982); H Dumoulin, ed., Buddhism in the Modern World (1976); C Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism (1921) and Japanese Buddhism (1935); A L Herman, An Introduction to Buddhist Thought (1984); C Humphreys, Buddhism (1962); D Ikeda, The Flower of Japanese Buddhism (1986); T Ling, A Dictionary of Buddhism (1981); R Robinson and W Johnson, The Buddhist Religion (1982); N Ross, Buddhism (1980); D Snellgrove, Indo Tibetan Buddhism (1986); E Zurcher, Buddhism: Its Origin and Spread in Words, Maps, and Pictures (1962).

Pure Land Buddhism

Advanced Information:
Pure Land Buddhism is one of the most influential forms of Mahayana Buddhism. According to some Mahayana schools, the cosmos contains many Pure Lands in each of which dwells one Buddha. The most popular of these is Sukhavati, the Land of Bliss of Amitabha, located in the West; it is on Sukhavati that Pure Land Buddhism focuses. Through devotion to Amitabha, it is claimed, Buddhists can be reborn and saved in his paradise.

Although the cult of Amitabha had its roots in India, it was developed and flourished in China and Japan. Hui Yuan founded the cult in 402 AD, calling it the White Lotus sect. From the 5th century on, a succession of Chinese Pure Land masters, Shan - tao (613 - 81) foremost among them, attracted followers from all social strata. Gradually their emphasis shifted from devout contemplation or visualization of Amitabha and his Pure Land to a doctrine of salvation through faith and the devout recitation of Amitabha's name (Amit'o fo in Chinese; Amida in Japanese). This recitation is called the nembutsu in Japanese (nien - fo in Chinese) and consists of repeating the formula "Namo Amida Batsu" (in Japanese; "Nanmo Amit'o fo" in Chinese), meaning "Salutation to the Buddha Amida."

These Pure Land doctrines were first introduced to Japan within the Tendai sect. Honen (1133 - 1212), emphasizing them exclusively, broke with Tendai and founded the independent Jodo (Pure Land) sect. His disciple Shinran (1173 - 1262) founded the more popularly oriented Jodo Shin (True Pure Land) sect. Both emphasized the practice of the nembutsu and the primacy of faith in Amida, but whereas Honen saw faith as the means of achieving rebirth in the Pure Land of the West (called Gokuraku in Japanese), Shinran viewed it as an expression of gratitude for Amida's saving grace.

Joseph M Kitagawa And John S Strong

Bibliography:
R H Robinson and W A Johnson, The Buddhist Religion (1982); E Steinilber - Oberlin, The Buddhist Sects of Japan (1938); D T Suzuki, Japanese Spirituality (1972); L G Thompson, Chinese Religion: An Introduction (1969); P Williams, Mahayana Buddhism (1989).